Access to Medicines in Developing Countries Essay

One of the appalling statistics that came out of a survey in 2000 was the percentage of the HIV/AIDS infections in Africa. It was reported that nearly 80% of the total number of affected people was from this continent. Now if this report sounds dreadful, one might get a bigger shock by looking at the picture of modern healthcare methodologies in Africa. Despite being a developing nation, Africa gets scarcely one percent of modern drugs. The value of all medical drugs transported to Africa amounts to the expenses spent on advertising by the leading pharmaceutical companies in the United States of America. Under the light of this reality, this paper is going to discuss the genuine scenario in developing countries that don’t have an affordable access to life-saving medicines. It might be noted that access to medicines is a fundamental human right, and there is a yawning gap between crisis and cure in a capitalistic social setup. Due to increased political pressure, many drug manufacturing companies have been forced to review their business strategies and produce medicines that are relatively less expensive. Moreover, it is also mandatory to formulate a well-organized delivery system that would ensure a proper and timely delivery of the medicinal goods to Africa and other Third World countries. Modern healthcare remedies are needed to be deployed in order to combat the menace of HIV and other diseases in the underprivileged tropics. (â€Å"Access to Medicine in Developing Countries†, 2000) Access to medicine in developing countries has always been a matter of great disputation, mainly because of the convoluted interaction between macroeconomic development, patterns of diseases and healthcare requirements and provisions. It has been an inescapable paradox for many countries where the national economic status can only be attained by improved health status. Hence, lack of supply of life-saving drugs hinders the scope and opportunity of national healthcare. (â€Å"Improving Access to Medicines in Developing Countries†, 2005) The impoverished countries find it a mammoth task to meet both ends successfully. It has been proposed that only a large scale international funding can inject some fruitful results in the context of healthcare and economic boost. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) are working together to provide the best possible framework for improved health status as well as the macroeconomic development of developing nations. WTO is primarily concerned with the organized growth of a capitalist, free market global economy. On the other hand, WHO is focused on improving health conditions by providing healthcare models that can be applied to both developed as well as developing nations. Institutional and public sector frameworks play a crucial role in realizing the objectives of WHO to the best possible extent. The newly incepted Global Health Fund is working relentlessly to provide remedies for HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria. The Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS agreement) are held, in some cases, as obstacles for access to essential medicines in developing countries. Ever since WTO finalized the TRIPS agreement in April 1994, this issue has been a matter of great debate. The main problems in accessing medicines, as viewed by experts, are the increasing expenses, which can shoot up to 66% of total expenditure in developing nations. Today’s scenario as far as having access to essential medicines is concerned is an alarming one, with more than one-third of the world’s population are deprived of indispensable drugs. According to the WHO, developing countries, especially those in Asia and Africa, must be provided with an all-encompassing solution in terms of health priority problems, and they must be able to gain access to life-saving medicines at an affordable deal. To make matters worse, the poorer section of societies in developing countries find themselves all at sea due to their inability to physically access life-saving drugs. So both availability and affordability are the key areas of concern. Now under these circumstances, the introduction of strong and worldwide product patents for drugs, as implemented through the TRIPS agreement, may cause drastic increase in prices for essential medicines. The ‘legal monopoly’ that comes with such rigid patent system prevents anybody from producing, selling or distributing medicines in an unauthorized manner. Even if there is no patent laws, access to medicines is going to be a problem for the developing countries, due to adequate purchasing capabilities and required infrastructure. Majority of the medicines for HIV/AIDS are still under ‘live’ patent coverage. It doesn’t make for affordable access to such medicines either. And since more than 95% of HIV/AIDS affected people are from developing countries, and 50% of them belong to the productive age group of below 25 years, serious socio-economic consequences are perceived with very little signs of relief. Before TRIPS were put to effect, most developing countries and some developed countries did not impose patent laws on medicines even if they were manufactured with innovative technological aids. But today, most of these nations being WTO members have to enforce the patent laws laid down by TRIPS. This has led to hike in prices of patented medicines. It is worth noticing that even under the TRIPS guidelines, patents are to be given only on applications received from 1995 onwards for new therapeutic inventions. So any medicine manufactured before 1995 should not be unaffordable for the developing nations. Manufacturers of the newer and more innovative pharmaceutical products file for patents only in countries where business of piracy runs rampant. Parallel import of drugs is another important issue that came into consideration after the TRIPS agreement. The Intellectual Property Rights owners of specific brands of medicines face problems when goods, legally distributed in the market of one country, are imported to another without the necessary legal authorization. Now, as long as there is no discrepancy in Intellectual Property Rights in two different countries, article 6 of TRIPS defends parallel import. But considering the economic side of such imports, it might be noted that price of the same medicine in one country may rise or fall to a great extent in another. So developing countries, without violating the Intellectual Property Rights protection, may find a way out to access essential but expensive drugs from its neighboring countries. (Watal, J. 2000) In addition to what is discussed above, one must bear in mind the supply side process concerning manufacture and distribution of medicines. The specific issue related to accessibility to medicines is directly linked with the development and implementation of more efficient and cost-effective measures in manufacturing and distributing drugs. A number of speculative theories and ideologies have been put forward to address the issue of maximizing the available resources to achieve a standardized health status around the globe. However, the aim of this paper is not to get into a particular ideological standpoint, or to promote distinct solutions, but to gain a deeper insight into the real constraints of manufacturing and distributive activities. One has to take into account the diverse theoretical concepts, the macroeconomic environment of international economics and technological nuances of the pharmaceutical sectors. Once we identify the constraints, it will be easier to suggest feasible solutions in terms of easy and regular access to medicines for the developing countries. The policies adopted by pharmaceutical companies are worth taking a look at.

Catcher in the Rye Outline Main Theme

Catcher Main Theme – Alienation INTRO: Topic Sentence: Holden Caufield, the misfit, hypocritical boy in J. D. Salinger’s novel, The Catcher in the Rye, sees the world from a different view, that often times make him feel extremely misunderstood by everyone he talks to. Thesis Statement: It is evident by his many actions throughout the novel that Holden sees the phoniness and fakeness of the adult world and therefore shields himself from it by alienating and isolating himself. PARAGRAPH 1: Topic Sentence: The first instance of Holden isolating himself is when he is watching the football game from the hill instead of from the stands with other people. Quotes: Anyway, it was the Saturday of the football game. I remember around three o'clock that afternoon I was standing way the hell up on top of Thomsen Hill. You could see the whole field from there, and you could see the two teams bashing each other all over the place. You could hear them all yelling. (Chapter 1 paragraph 3) Talking Points: He is above interacting with people He prefers watching people, not talking PARAGRAPH 2: Topic Sentence: A second instance of Holden’s isolation is at Penn Station where he goes into the phone booth, but realizes there is nobody to call. Quotes: The first thing I did when I got off at Penn Station, I went into this phone booth. I felt like giving somebody a buzz but as soon as I was inside, I couldn't think of anybody to call up. My brother D. B. was in Hollywood. My kid sister Phoebe was out. Then I thought of giving Jane Gallagher's mother a buzz. Then I thought of calling this girl Sally Hayes. I thought of calling Carl Luce. So I ended up not calling anybody. I came out of the booth, after about twenty minutes or so. (Chapter 9 paragraph 1) Talking Points: His hesitation is a result of a judgment on others PARAGRAPH 3: Topic Sentence: Third and finally, Holden lives vicariously through other people as a way to combat his isolation. Quotes: But there was one nice thing. This family that you could tell just came out of some church were walking right in front of me – a father, a mother, and a little kid about six years old. They looked sort of poor. The kid was swell. He was making out like he was walking a very straight line, the way kids do, and the whole time he kept singing and humming. It made me feel better. It made me feel not so depressed anymore. (Chapter 16 paragraph 3) Talking Points: Combating isolation by observation CLOSER: Topic Sentence: Holden copes with the problems of not liking the world by just isolating himself from it. Talking Points: Misunderstood leads to frustration Way to cope with his feelings

Measuring the Effectiveness of Human Resource Management in Improving Literature review

Measuring the Effectiveness of Human Resource Management in Improving Organizational Performance - Literature review Example The first part of the review will focus on providing a critical discussion of human resource management and the underlying theories and functions. The second part of the review will highlight briefly on the concept of organizational performance. The last part of the review process will focus on correlating what different source write on the effectiveness of human resource management in improving organizational performance and then lastly, developing a conceptual framework for this study. It is important to note that the review will additionally outline the methods and methodological position of the researchers or writers, and it will even mention any existing problem and gaps within the existing body of knowledge. According to the writings by Rodgers and Wrights (1998, p 3), he described human resource management as an administrative function that involves that aspect of recruiting, selecting, firing and designing of payrolls. Rodgers and Wrights (1998, p 3) further added that in the present context, human resource management is viewed as a component for adding value to a firm’s strategy. In a separate study conducted by Sauer (2010, p 1), the term ‘human resource management’ has been described as the function that is concerned with employee policies, managerial systems, and practices that have a direct influence on an organizational workforce. From a broader perspective, Sauer (2010, p 1) wrote that HRM function simply involves all the decisions that affect the employees or the workforce within an organization. Rodgers and Wrights (1998, p3) made a mention that HRM as a practice has been on a growth period since the 20th century in the sense that there have been numerous advancements or development within the practice since its conception.

Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness Essay - 5

Strategic Management and Strategic Competitiveness - Essay Example Impacts of Globalization and Technology on AECOM The inception of globalization and advancement in technologies has facilitated AECOM to expand its business operations across the globe. At the same time, the operational performance of the company has also witnessed certain severe impacts with the advent of globalization and the advancement in technologies. Correspondingly, with the rise of globalization the company was able to spread its operations all over the world to a large extent and has considerably attained the benefits arising thereon. Owing to lessen trade barriers, the company was able to provide its services to different regions of the world and ensure its active presence in the global arena. It has also been ascertained that the continuous expansion of the company is largely due to the operational opportunities presence in various nations of the world. Apart from this, the use of advanced technology is also another factor that has immensely contributed towards the reasona ble success of the company. The use of new technologies has enabled the company to exploit unreached business opportunities in the most efficient and convenient manner. Furthermore, the incorporation of the latest technologies has also facilitated in enhancing the quality of services of the company to a considerable extent. However, apart from these positive aspects, globalization has increased the level of competition for the company. Prior to globalization the operations of the company was almost monopoly without much threat of the competitors. However, with the advent of the globalization and technological advancement the AECOM has significantly resulted in the breaking of its monopoly from the marketplace. (Parker, 2005). The Application of Industrial Organization Model and Resource-based Model It has been noted that, the performance of the company is considerably good over the years. However, implementation of the industrial organization model and the resource-based model can b e effective in enhancing the performance of the company up to the next level. Since, the company operates on a larger scale and in a widespread market the industrial model is ascertained to be vitally effective. The industrial model advocates that it is the sole decision of the company to operate in a particular market and determines its performance. Additionally, the implementation of this model will facilitate the company to choose less competitive market for its operation which can ultimately raise its performance graph. On the other hand, the resource-based model can also be valuable in its several ways. This model reflects the ability of the company to collect valuable internal resources and build strategies in accordance to the available resources. The company can first choose resources for its production and utilized the same at the largest extent so that it can gain competitive advantage over its rivals. Subsequently, the company needs to choose an appropriate market for its services with less competition and formulate its strategies accordingly to reap the best benefit arising from the selected market. It can be argued that these models would eventually upgrade the performance of the company to a greater extent (Heracleous, 2003). Influence of Vision Statement and Mission Statement on AECOM The operation of the company has seen to be quite successful especially owing to its strict adherence to its mission and vision. It

Database Systems Concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Database Systems Concepts - Essay Example One more register, known as program counter register, consists of the address for the next instruction to be processed or executed. The stack pointer register is associated with an automated program stack that is located in the address space. Moreover, it can increase its size to the amount of memory available in the system. Generally, the stack point is triggered by the initial instructions of an application program. The stack representing the data structure increases downwards from high memory to low memory. The central processing unit consists of many types of registers. General Purpose Registers are utilized for complex arithmetic calculations. A typical 8086 CPU is associated with 8 general purpose registers which are as follows: AX - the accumulator register are separated into AH / AL. They produce shortest machine code and supports arithmetic logic and data transfer. One of the numbers must indicate AL or AX. They also support multiplication and division, inputs and outputs. à ¢â‚¬ËœBX’ the base address register is separated into ‘BH / BL’ and ‘CX’ count register is separated into ‘CH / CL’. The segmentation of iterative code is conducted by the loop instruction. Moreover, the REP command executes monotonous operations on a string. Furthermore, it helps the counts of bits to transfer and revolve.  Ã¢â‚¬ËœDX’ the data register is separated into ‘DH / DL’. ‘DX: AX’ concatenated into 32-bit register for some MUL and DIV operations. It specifies ports for enter and exit operations. The ‘SI’ source index register is utilized for indicating the data address. Likewise, it is used as a source in some instructions related to strings. The addresses containing offsets are relative to DS. The  Ã¢â‚¬ËœDI’ destination index register is utilized for data addressing indication. In some instructions related to strings, it is also used as destination. The addresses contai ning offsets are relative to ES. The’  BP’ base pointer register is primarily used for accessing parameters that are passed through the stack (8086 registers). The addresses containing offsets are relative to SS. The stack pointer register always indicates to the item available on the top of the stack. The addresses containing offsets are relative to SS. It also indicates to word and an empty stack may have ‘SP = FFFEh’ value. Special purpose Accessible Application registers are combined with eight 4-bit registers for holding the status of the previous instruction. Segment Registers are divided in two parts in typical ‘x86’ architecture, named as segment and an offset. Segment registers are utilized to store segment values. The ‘CS’ indicates the segment including the current program. ‘DS’ indicates at segment including variables are. ‘ES’ extra segment register indicates its usage. SS register indicate s the segment enclosing the stack. Special Kernel Mode Registers enables the execution of a user within the kernel space (8086 registers). The significant advantage of this procedure is valuable because it is an efficient mechanism for distribution of code and data. For instance, memory can contain only one copy of an editor or a compiler. Editor is a program that can be compared with the word processor. Although, the main purpose of the editor is to amend the source code. The source code is defined as â€Å"Every computer program is written in a programming language,

Privacy and Security Issues Online Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Privacy and Security Issues Online - Essay Example Conducting business via the internet has been referred to as e-commerce or electronic commerce (Kalakota and Whinston, 1997). According to Kalakota and Whinston, â€Å"it endeavors to improve the execution of business transactions over various networks† (1997, p. 4). Ecommerce has really made business easier and enjoyable. This has resulted to more performance, better quality, greater customer satisfaction, and better decision making among the consumers and sellers (Kalakota 1997). ...The UK government believes that if e-commerce was a sector by itself, it would be larger than the sectors of utilities and agriculture (UK Cabinet Office Staff, 2011). However, apart from bringing many profits to business owners, it has brought about breaches of privacy and security to consumers and businesses. 1. Various Privacy and Security Issues experienced by Consumers and Businesses Online The ever increasing use of the internet has resulted in many consumers giving too much information wit hout even realizing it and has been viewed as a tempting treasure, especially for marketers. For example, when a consumer visits a particular company’s website, he might unwillingly provide to the company with even confidential information. If the website utilizes cookies and other tracking devices, companies usually gather even more information, which if not properly handled, results in security and privacy issues. Computerized interactions between businesses and their clients have helped in building more sophisticated businesses. As more information is being shared with others, some clients’ personal information ends up in the wrong hands and might be used in wrong ways bringing up problems between consumers and businesses (Selis, Ramasastry, Kim and Smith, n.d.). The nature of online activities has been seen to threaten the privacy of consumer’s and the businesses taking place online. Every move the consumer or a business owner makes on the internet, whether on smartphones, tablets, or laptops, turn out to be information that trackers have been able to access, and used to their advantage.

Visual Arts Experimental Drawing Research Paper

Visual Arts Experimental Drawing - Research Paper Example Just as the artist for the tapestry is unknown, there is also confusion on who actually commissioned the tapestry. This art piece is not just known for its significance in the history of art but is also admired by historians around the world since it depicts the events that led to the Norman conquest of England that ended in the Battle of Hasting. The fifty scenes depicted in the tapestry illuminate historians on the different events that transpired during one of the most important battles in English history. As each piece within the tapestry depicts one scene separately, the element of continuity is created within the piece through the use of borders that improve as the art piece progresses. The medium used by the artists developing the Tapestry is colored woolen yarn that is embroidered on the tabby-woven linen. The artists have used the technique of stem stitch and outline stitch throughout the tapestry. The color theme that the tapestry depends on is terra cotta, olive green, blu e, dull gold with touches of black to accentuate the entire piece (Musset, 14-16). Below are three scenes from the Bayeux Tapestry, properly labeled and chronologically placed: Brothers in Arm, Scene 1 Long Live the King, Scene 1 Battle of Hasting, Scene 1 Egyptian Tomb Painting Just as the Egyptian architecture has been famous around the world, Egyptian tomb paintings have also been source of inspiration for artists around the world. The Egyptian tomb paintings are not done by one artists but rather a group of craftsmen. The painting on the tomb walls depicted ordinary scenes such as hunting, fishing etc. Along with the everyday scenes, scenes of the deceased’s life were also painted, depicting his major achievements in life. The purpose of the Egyptian tomb paintings was to prevent evil from taking over the dead man’s spirit. In this regard, the paintings served as a biography of the deceased so that he may remember what he was in his life and would not be tempted to join the evil forces (David, 66). Egyptian tomb paintings are quite unlike any other painting since they employ the technique of relief to create a three dimensional element. Through the technique of relief, the artists carved on the walls of the tomb to give the painting an effect of sculpture. Two kinds of relief were used: raised relief, whereby the figures were raised from the background; and sunken relief whereby the figures were sunken from the background. Even though, the relief ensured that the painting took a three dimensional element, the artists relied strictly on painting two dimensional figures. Within these figures, the head were also shown in profile while the body was frontal. Egyptian tomb painting was also famous for their use of vivid colors. The colors within the Egyptian tomb painting were quite defined, meaning that certain colors were attributed to certain features of the face. For example, the hair was always black and the skin always yellow. Certain pieces of Egyptian tomb painting are as under: ‘Sennedjem and Ti harvesting papyrus’ from the Ramesside Period located in tomb of Sennutem Menena Tomb: Harvesting Scene #2 ca. 1342 Egyptian tomb painting from Beni-Hasan (about 1900 B.C.) Miriam Cahn Miriam Cahn is a Swiss artist who studied graphic design in Paris and Basel, a city where she was born. Miriam was a Jewish and a feminist, a fact that is apparent from many of her paintings. Most of Cahn’

Compare and Contrast Michelangelo's David with Bernini's version Essay

Compare and Contrast Michelangelo's David with Bernini's version - Essay Example This statue lacks depth, since all the focus is on the frontal view. David’s expression is cool and enigmatic, which distances the viewer and encourages contemplation of his beauty rather than empathy with the story of David and Goliath. Bernini’s David, on the other hand, is leaning to one side, in a bent position. It is as if he is moving through time, having just picked up the stone, and now aiming it in his sling and about to fire it at Goliath. The viewer is drawn his facial expression, which is contorted in quite extreme emotion, and the sweeping line from his left ankle to his head. There is no mistaking a frown of concentration around his eyes and a firm determination in his downturned mouth. Bernini’s David has both arms drawn to the left, holding the sling tight, which takes him temporarily off balance. Arm and leg muscles are tensed, making the sculpture dramatic, and dynamic, almost as if he is about to step out from the podium. This is an open form sculpture which interacts with the space around it in a dramatic way, while Michelangelo’s David is static, and merely looks out from a still

Humanitarian Action Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Humanitarian Action - Essay Example This paper highlights that according to international humanitarian law, the right to water entails the right to sufficient, acceptable, safe, affordable and physically accessible water for both domestic and personal use. In terms of quantity, an adequate amount of water is that amount needed to reduce the threat of water-related diseases, prevent death that could arise out of dehydration, and to cater for cooking, consumption, and domestic and personal hygiene requirements.This study stresses that  the provision of humanitarian support in form of water sanitation and hygiene is important as it is attached to the value of water which is inextricably related to other human right rights such as the right to food, health and housing. This means that sanitation and water are key determinants for survival in the first stages, and indeed all stages, of a disaster. In most cases, vulnerable groups are susceptible to death from disease and illness which are closely related to poor sanitatio n, inadequate water supplies, and inadequate sanitation.  Water and sanitation programmes are mainly aimed at reducing the exposure to disease vectors and transmission  Ã‚   of faeco-oral ailments through the provision of safe drinking water, promotion of good hygiene as well as the reduction of risks that are related to poor hygienic conditions. Closely related to water is sanitation which involves vector control, excreta disposal, drainage and waste disposal.